Hidden in plain sight: the impact of human rhinovirus infection in adults

Abstract

Background: human rhinovirus (HRV), an unencapsulated RNA virus, was first identified more than 70 years ago. It is highly infectious and easily transmitted through aerosols and direct contact. The advent of multiplex PCR has enhanced the detection of a diverse range of respiratory viruses, and HRV consistently ranks among the most prevalent respiratory pathogens globally. Circulation occurs throughout the year, with peak incidence in autumn and spring in temperate climates. Remarkably, during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, HRV transmission persisted, demonstrating its resilience against stringent public health measures aimed at curbing viral transmission.

Main body: HRV is characterized by its extensive genetic diversity, comprising three species and more than 170 genotypes. This diversity and large number of concurrently circulating strains allows HRV to frequently escape the adaptive immune system and poses formidable challenges for the development of effective vaccines and antiviral therapies. Subsequently, there is currently a lack of specific treatments.

Historically, HRV has been associated with self-limiting upper respiratory infection. However, there is now extensive evidence highlighting its significant role in severe lower respiratory disease in adults, including exacerbations of chronic airway diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but importantly also pneumonia. These severe manifestations can occur even in immunocompetent individuals, broadening the clinical impact of this ubiquitous virus.

Consequently, the burden of rhinovirus infections extends across various healthcare settings, from primary care to general hospital wards and intensive care units. The impact of HRV in adults, in terms of morbidity and healthcare utilization, rivals that of the other major respiratory viruses, including influenza and respiratory syncytial virus. Recognition of this substantial burden underscores the critical need for novel treatment strategies and effective management protocols to mitigate the impact of HRV infections on public health.

Conclusion: this review examines the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and risk factors associated with severe HRV infection in adults. By drawing on contemporary literature, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the virus’s significant health implications. Understanding the scope of this impact is essential for developing new, targeted interventions and improving patient outcomes in the face of this persistent and adaptable pathogen.

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Identifiers

ORCID for Tommaso Morelli: orcid.org/0009-0008-7151-171X

ORCID for Anna Freeman: orcid.org/0000-0003-3495-2520

ORCID for Karl J. Staples: orcid.org/0000-0003-3844-6457

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