Multi-modal physiological markers of arousal induced by CO2 inhalation in Virtual Reality

Abstract

High arousal states, like fear and anxiety, play a crucial role in organisms’ adaptive responses to threats. Yet, inducing and reliably measuring such states within controlled settings presents challenges. This study uses a novel approach of CO2 enriched air vs normal air in a Virtual Reality (VR) con- text to induce high arousal whilst measuring physiological signals such as galvanic skin response (GSR), facial skin impedance, facial electromyography (fEMG), photoplethysmography (PPG), breathing, and pupillometry. In a single-blind study, 63 participants underwent a regimen involving 20 minutes of breathing regular air followed by 20 minutes of 7.5% CO2, separated by a brief interval. Findings demonstrate the efficacy of CO2 inhalation in elicit- ing high arousal, as substantiated by statistically significant changes for all signals, further validated through high (94%) accuracy arousal classification. This study establishes a method for inducing high arousal states within a laboratory context validated through comprehensive multi-sensor data and machine learning analyses. The study underscores the value of employing a suite of physiological measures to comprehensively describe the intricate dynamics of arousal. The generated database is a promising resource for re- searching physiological markers of arousal, panic, fear, and anxiety, offering insights that can potentially resonate within clinical and therapeutic realms.

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Identifiers

ORCID for Neslihan Özhan: orcid.org/0000-0001-8648-2458

ORCID for Matthew Garner: orcid.org/0000-0001-9481-2226

ORCID for Erich Graf: orcid.org/0000-0002-3162-4233

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