Evaluating the role of female body morphology and maturation on local sweating mechanisms to guide innovation in sportswear design

Abstract

Human body temperature regulation relies on integrated feedback and feedforward processes that maintain cellular function during thermal challenges. After behavioural adjustments, the production and evaporation of sweat from the skin surface is the primary mechanism for heat dissipation during exercise and heat stress.

Females undergo unique anatomical, physiological, and hormonal changes across their lifespan (e.g., puberty, menstrual cycle, pregnancy, menopause), which influence body morphology (e.g. breast size) and thermoregulatory function, yet they remain under-represented in exercise thermoregulation research. This thesis aims to advance our fundamental understanding of how females regulate local sweating and thermal perception during exercise in the heat, and how developmental and hormonal transitions that shape morphology (e.g., breast development, puberty) affect these responses. The applied goal is to provide evidence that supports sports apparel design reflecting female diversity, moving beyond male-centric standards and drawing on the expertise and research capabilities of project co-funder Nike.

The first experimental campaign investigated the impact of varying breast surface area in adulthood on local sweat rates (LSR), thermal and wetness perception and skin mechanics. The results showed larger breasts have significantly reduced heat activated sweat gland density and LSR, and significantly greater skin stiffness in the upper breast, which meaningfully reduces following exercise in the heat. However, variation in breast size does not appear to impact thermal and wetness sensitivity across the breast, or tactile sensitivity in the lower breast region. The second experimental campaign investigated the impact of pubertal development on patterns of LSR and whole-body thermal perception. It was found that during puberty, LSR across the torso (i.e. chest, abdomen, upper and lower back), but not the limbs (hand, thigh, shin), increased linearly with age, due to age-dependent increases in sweat output per gland. Changes in regional mapping of LSR became apparent and meaningful (i.e. 2-fold difference) at age 14-15 or Tanner stage 3 in girls. The results also indicated that perceptions of temperature, wetness and thermal comfort during exercise in the heat did not differ across age-groups.

Together, these findings provide novel, fundamental evidence that female hormonal and morphological development can shape local sweating, perceptual, and skin mechanics in the heat. This thesis delivers the first integrated characterisation of breast-specific sweating, perceptual sensitivity, and mechanical properties, and the first detailed mapping of the transition from child-like to adult-like regional sweating patterns in girls. These insights address key gaps in female-centred thermophysiology and offer empirical data to improve sportswear and bra design, refine thermoregulatory models, and guide user-centred product development for female children and adults. Collectively, this work establishes a foundational evidence base that advances understanding of female thermoregulation and supports female comfort, health, and exercise participation in warmer environments.

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Identifiers

ORCID for Hannah Blount: orcid.org/0000-0002-2419-1716

ORCID for Davide Filingeri: orcid.org/0000-0001-5652-395X

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